In December 2025, Alexandra Milanova (Institute of Balkan Studies & Centre of Thracology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences) came to the Modern French History seminar at the IHR to discuss her work on cultural relations between France and Bulgaria in the late-twentieth century. Here, she is sharing a snippet of her work on this topic, unveiling another aspect of Cold War history to reflect on the performance and importance of cultural diplomacy in this period of ideological division.
Throughout the Cold War, and especially during the Long 1970s, France was an important Bulgarian partner due to its aspirations to overcome the bloc mentality and serve as an intermediary between the two superpowers – the United States and the Soviet Union. Its leadership pursued a “firm dialogue” with the Soviet Union and the Eastern European countries through cultural contacts and political consultations. A significant milestone in French-Bulgarian relations during that period was the visit of Bulgarian Prime Minister Todor Zhivkov to France in 1966, which was considered as an expression of the mutual interest to cooperate. During the visit, Foreign Ministers Ivan Bashev and Maurice Couve de Murville signed a cultural agreement outlining the main principles, scope, and types of cooperation in education, science, technology, arts, sports, tourism, and the media for a period of five years. This accord would be automatically extended unless either party expressed disagreement. It was also envisaged to establish a permanent Bulgarian-French commission to monitor the implementation of the agreement and the programmes signed on its grounds, as well as to explore the conditions for expanding cultural exchange. After the conclusion of this cultural accord, a number of performers, musicians, artists, and public figures regularly exchanged visits.
In the early 1970s, several representative manifestations of French culture were held in Bulgaria, which had a strong impact on the local public. In May 1971, Roger Planchon’s troupe, Théâtre de la Cité de Villeurbanne, gave nine performances of classical plays in Sofia and in Plovdiv, followed in July of the same year by an exhibition of tapestries by Jean Lurçat. A great celebration for sophisticated music lovers was the French Music Week held in June 1972, which featured guest performances by the Paris Octet Ensemble, the Paris Chamber Orchestra, soloists, and the long-established folk ensemble from Morvan, Burgundy “The Children of Morvan”. In April 1973, an exhibition of engravings “Paris from its foundation to the present day” also took place.
Additionally, French chansons became extremely popular in Bulgaria. Central authorities promoted the musical genre as a means of diverting interest away from the “decadent” rock music of The Beatles and various American bands. The director of the Golden Orpheus Festival – the most famous competition in Bulgaria for performers, songwriters, and songs – managed to arrange the participation of Joséphine Becker (1969, 1970), Gilbert Bécaud (1971), and Adamo (1972) in solo concerts at the festival. The Bulgarian public welcomed with great excitement encounters with French singers who have conquered the most prestigious stages.
Furthermore, Paris was extremely pleased with the position of the French language in Bulgaria, to the extent that official documents referred to Bulgaria (in first place), along with Romania, as one of the strongholds of the French language in Eastern Europe. In the mid-1970s, 70% of primary school pupils studied French and 65% in secondary school compared to German (17%) and English (18%).
A serious dispute arose between France and Bulgaria over the request to open a French cultural centre at the Embassy (similar to the former French Institute). This has been firmly rejected by the Bulgarian authorities because it would set a dangerous precedent for other countries that might want the same thing. The French took a different approach – they requested a separate building with larger premises for the cultural service at the Embassy so that it can organize film screenings and hold exhibitions. Having granted this request, French diplomats had to formalise its status. For ideological reasons, Bulgarian authorities did not officially authorise the existence of a French cultural centre, but made it clear that they would not hinder the activities of the cultural service. Thus, in 1976, the Embassy announced that its building had a library and a reading room with free access for Bulgarian citizens. The fact that France did not raise the issue of opening such a centre for nearly a decade also indicated that a de facto French cultural centre was operating.
In the mid-1970s Bulgaria became more receptive to French cultural events. On the one hand, this was due to the signing of the Helsinki Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (August 1, 1975), which encouraged the free movement of people and ideas. On the other hand, at that time, Lyudmila Zhivkova, the daughter of the communist leader Todor Zhivkov, headed cultural policy in Bulgaria. Under her leadership, Bulgaria heavily invested in cultural diplomacy to display the contribution of Bulgarian culture to the development of human civilization. Exchange with the West was an essential aspect of Zhivkova’s policies who launched and personally directed several major projects. Her ambitious cultural program was linked to the lavish celebrations of a national anniversary in 1981 – thirteen hundred years since the establishment of the medieval Bulgarian state in 681. These celebrations consumed vast amounts of labour and money from 1976 to 1982, and had both domestic and international dimensions. The goal was to boost the prestige of their country and establish its presence on the global scene.
For a small country like Bulgaria, trying to make its international debut with a splash, the allure of Paris was irresistible. Throughout the 1970s, the French capital, along with other cities, hosted Bulgarian events that were widely and sympathetically reported in the international press. Therefore, it came as no surprise that when in 1973 the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party approved the first major Bulgarian international overture, Thracian Culture and Art exhibition, later known internationally as Thracian Treasures from Bulgaria, its first showing, from May to August 1974, was at the Petit Palais in Paris. In March 1976, the 1000 Years of Bulgarian Icons exhibition also opened at Petit Palais, drawing large crowds.
As 1981 approached, Bulgarian representatives in the West began celebrating the 1300th anniversary by organizing prestigious events dedicated to the jubilee. In 1978, Contemporary Bulgarian Art marked the Bulgarian centennial in Paris. In the same year, Zhivkova visited Paris to sign the new cultural exchange agreement and was received by the Minister of Culture, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and the French President. Cooperation further developed with UNESCO, also stationed in Paris, including events associated with the International Year of the Child in 1979 and the 700th anniversary of the medieval Orthodox Christian composer Ioan Kukuzel in 1980. In June, the Bulgarian Medieval Civilization exhibition opened in the Galeries du Grand-Palais. In October, Days of Bulgarian Culture at Georges Pompidou Centre featured photo and book exhibitions, films, and musical performances. Finally, in September 1981, diplomats held Bulgarian Days at the UNESCO headquarters.
Against this background, let us attempt to determine whether cultural exchange between the two countries in the Long 1970s was the outcome of successful cultural diplomacy efforts or serve propaganda purposes.
From Bulgarian perspective, throughout the socialist period, the so-called cultural front maintained its important role in promoting the ideological goals of the regime. The relationship between culture, ideology, and propaganda was at the core of the state socialist understandings of official culture, and intellectuals played an important role in the Bulgarian power structures during the entire period from 1944 to 1989. The involvement of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party’s Art, Culture, and Propaganda Department vetted the overall direction of cultural policy and signified the new attention to culture during real socialism. All cultural activities abroad straddled the murky line between culture, public relations, and propaganda for the perpetuation of the late socialist regime. While at first suspicious of “communist propaganda” or wary of the “marked revival of Bulgarian nationalism,” international observers came to see these cultural events as the clever public relations campaign of a small state that wished to advance its international standing, redefine its reputation, and gain support for its policy agenda.
From French perspective, until the end of the 1940s, when bloc confrontation prevailed, Bulgaria was perceived as part of the traditional French area of cultural influence, even though Paris had modest financial resources. French cultural diplomacy gained new impetus with the easing of tensions in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Paris developed an ambitious expansion programme to strengthen its cultural (and, as a result, political) influence, which, with few exceptions, remained in place for several decades. The Eastern Bloc’s predisposition contributed to its success, owing to France’s reputation as a country with the potential to destabilise the West, and the perception of its cultural features as more acceptable. The favourable atmosphere of Lyudmila Zhivkova’s “era” made it possible to establish an unofficial but functional French cultural centre in Sofia, similar to the former French Institute. Unfortunately, the 1980s saw a sharp decline in French presence in Bulgaria. However, with an eye to the possible prospects for French influence, Paris took care, even during a period of highly strained relations with Moscow, not to sever political ties and to maintain cultural contacts with Bulgaria.
